Diseases & Conditions

Menière’s disease is a chronic idiopathic inner-ear disorder characterised by recurrent spontaneous episodes of vertigo, fluctuating low-to-medium frequency sensorineural hearing loss, tinnitus, and aural fullness. It most commonly presents unilaterally but may affect both ears in some patients. The leading pathologic correlate is endolymphatic hydrops (distension of the endolymphatic spaces), but the exact cause remains unclear. Clinical presentation and course vary widely between individuals (AAO-HNS, 2020).

Mydriasis is the presence of abnormally large pupil(s) (dilation). It may be physiological (e.g., low light or arousal) or pathological. Pathological mydriasis can result from local ocular causes (traumatic iris sphincter injury, angle-closure glaucoma), pharmacologic agents (anticholinergics, sympathomimetics applied topically or systemically), or neurologic causes (third cranial nerve [oculomotor] palsy with pupil involvement, Adie tonic pupil, midbrain lesions). New-onset, unilateral, fixed, and nonreactive mydriasis, especially when associated with ptosis, ophthalmoplegia, severe headache, or decreased consciousness, requires urgent neurologic/ophthalmic assessment and often brain imaging to exclude compressive lesions (for example, a posterior communicating artery aneurysm) (Payne, 2023).

Multiple myeloma is a clonal plasma-cell malignancy of the bone marrow characterised by proliferation of malignant plasma cells and production of a monoclonal immunoglobulin (M-protein). The disease causes end-organ damage (CRAB: hypercalcaemia, renal failure, anaemia, bone lesions) or meets myeloma-defining biomarker criteria (Rajkumar, 2024). Clinical features include bone pain, anaemia, renal impairment, recurrent infections, and hypercalcaemia. Management depends on disease stage, presence of symptoms, patient fitness, and eligibility for autologous stem cell transplantation (ASCT). Modern therapy includes proteasome inhibitors, immunomodulatory medicines (IMiDs), anti-CD38 monoclonal antibodies, and emerging cellular and bispecific immunotherapies.

Myeloid leukaemia is a type of blood cancer that affects the myeloid line of blood cells, characterised by the rapid growth of abnormal cells in the bone marrow. It interferes with the production of normal blood cells, leading to various symptoms and complications. The two main types of myeloid leukaemia are acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) and chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML), with AML being the more aggressive form.

Mycosis (plural: mycoses) refers to a disease caused by fungi and includes a spectrum from superficial infections limited to skin, hair and nails (dermatophyte and yeast infections) to subcutaneous infections following traumatic inoculation, and invasive / systemic fungal diseases that may affect the lungs, bloodstream and deep organs, particularly in immunocompromised people. Aetiology, diagnostic approach, and therapy differ substantially between superficial and invasive forms; therefore, the classification into superficial, subcutaneous and systemic (deep) is clinically important (Reddy et al., 2022)

Malaria is a severe, potentially life-threatening disease caused by a parasite transmitted through the bites of infected Anopheles mosquitoes. It is a significant public health issue in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide, with symptoms ranging from fever and chills to more severe complications such as organ failure and cerebral malaria. Prompt medical attention is crucial for timely diagnosis and effective treatment.

Meningitis is an inflammatory condition of the meninges (the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord), most commonly caused by infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites, and less commonly by non-infectious causes (drugs, autoimmune disease, malignancy). Bacterial meningitis is the most immediately life-threatening form and requires urgent empiric antimicrobial therapy; viral meningitis is usually less severe and often self-limited. Early recognition and prompt treatment are critical to reduce mortality and long-term disability, according to the (WHO (2025)).

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic autoimmune disease, affecting the central nervous system. In MS, the immune system mistakenly attacks the protective covering of nerve fibres, known as myelin. This damage disrupts communication between the brain and the rest of the body, leading to various symptoms. While the exact cause of MS is unknown, it is believed to be an autoimmune disorder with possible genetic, environmental, and infectious triggers.

Muscle cramps (muscle spasms) are sudden, involuntary, painful contractions of skeletal muscle (not smooth muscle). They are usually episodic and affect voluntary (skeletal) muscles, most commonly the calves, thighs, feet, and hands. Abdominal “cramps” related to bowel spasms are usually due to smooth-muscle activity (visceral) and should be described separately (Bordoni et al., 2023)

Migraine is a common neurobiological disorder characterised by recurrent attacks of moderate-to-severe headache often accompanied by nausea, vomiting, photophobia, and phonophobia, sometimes transient neurologic symptoms (aura). Modern pathophysiologic models emphasise cortical spreading depression (a mechanism for aura) and activation of the trigeminovascular system with subsequent release of neuropeptides (including CGRP), rather than a simple “blood-vessel activation” explanation. Attacks typically last 4–72 hours if untreated and are disabling for many people (American Headache Society, 2021).